Graded thin films

ABSTRACT

Thin films are formed by atomic layer deposition, whereby the composition of the film can be varied from monolayer to monolayer during cycles including alternating pulses of self-limiting chemistries. In the illustrated embodiments, varying amounts of impurity sources are introduced during the cyclical process. A graded gate dielectric is thereby provided, even for extremely thin layers. The gate dielectric as thin as 2 nm can be varied from pure silicon oxide to oxynitride to silicon nitride. Similarly, the gate dielectric can be varied from aluminum oxide to mixtures of aluminum oxide and a higher dielectric material (e.g., ZrO 2 ) to pure high k material and back to aluminum oxide. In another embodiment, metal nitride (e.g., WN) is first formed as a barrier for lining dual damascene trenches and vias. During the alternating deposition process, copper can be introduced, e.g., in separate pulses, and the copper source pulses can gradually increase in frequency, forming a graded transition region, until pure copper is formed at the upper surface. Advantageously, graded compositions in these and a variety of other contexts help to avoid such problems as etch rate control, electromigration and non-ohmic electrical contact that can occur at sharp material interfaces.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/800,757, filed Mar. 6, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,534,355, whichclaims the priority benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.60/187,423, filed Mar. 7, 2000.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to forming layers in integratedcircuits, and more particularly to depositing thin films with gradedimpurity concentrations.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There are numerous semiconductor process steps involved in thedevelopment of modem day integrated circuits (ICs). From the initialfabrication of silicon substrates to final packaging and testing,integrated circuit manufacturing involves many fabrication steps,including photolithography, doping, etching and thin film deposition. Asa result of these processes, integrated circuits are formed ofmicroscopic devices and wiring amid multiple layers.

A basic building block of the integrated circuit is the thin filmtransistor (TFT). The transistor includes a gate dielectric layersandwiched between a “metal” layer and the semiconductor substrate, thusthe acronym “MOS” for metal-oxide-semiconductor. In reality, the gateelectrode is typically formed of conductively doped silicon rather thanmetal. The gate dielectric most commonly employed is SiO₂ or silicondioxide.

Today's market demands more powerful and faster integrated circuits. Inpursuit of such speed and lower power consumption, device packingdensities are continually being increased by scaling down devicedimensions. To date, this scaling has reduced gate electrode widths toless than 0.25 μm. Currently, commercial products are availableemploying gate widths or critical dimensions of 0.18 μm or less. Thescaling rules that apply to these small devices call for very thin gateoxide layers, which have grown smaller with each generation of MOSintegrated circuits. The thickness of gate oxides is made as small aspossible, thereby increasing switching speed. Conventional gate oxidelayers may be inadequate in several respects as dimensions arecontinuously scaled.

Extremely thin silicon dioxide gate dielectrics exhibit undesirablephenomena such as quantum-mechanical tunneling. In the classical sense,the oxide represents a relatively impenetrable barrier to injection ofelectrons into the conduction-band of the silicon if they possesskinetic energies smaller than 3.1 eV. However, the electron exhibits afinite probability of crossing the barrier even if the electron does notpossess sufficient kinetic energy. This probability increases withlarger gate electric fields and/or thinner gate oxides. For oxidethicknesses smaller than 3 nm the direct tunneling current becomes largeenough that it removes carriers faster than they can be supplied bythermal generation. As a result, silicon dioxide gate dielectrics arelikely to reach a lower scaling limit of about 1.5 nm to 2 nm.

Another problem with thin gate oxides is their susceptibility to dopantdiffusion from the overlying gate electrode. A polysilicon gateelectrode layer is typically doped with boron for its enhancedconductivity. As the gate oxide thickness is scaled down, boron caneasily penetrate through the gate oxide, resulting in instabilities indevice properties. Boron penetration into gate dielectrics has suchundesirable consequences as positive shifts in threshold voltage,increases in sub-threshold swing, increases in charge trapping,decreases in low-field hole mobility, and degradation of current drivedue to polysilicon depletion in p-MOSFETs.

Efforts to address deficiencies of silicon dioxide include nitrogenincorporation into the gate dielectric. Silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) has ahigher dielectric constant than SiO₂, theoretically enabling thinnerequivalent oxide thickness for gate dielectrics that are nottunnel-limited, and furthermore serves as an effective barrier againstimpurity diffusion. However, the interfaces between silicon nitridefilms and the underlying semiconductor substrate are generally of poorquality, resulting in a high density of charge trapping sites andpinholes, and attendant current leakage. As a consequence, attempts havebeen made to create SiO₂ and Si₃N₄ hybrids, such as silicon oxynitridefilms, for use as gate dielectrics. Conventional methods ofincorporating nitrogen into silicon oxide gate dielectrics are difficultto control, however, particularly for ultra-thin gate dielectrics offuture generation devices

Other solutions to scaling problems include the use of high permitivitymaterials (high K), such as tantalum pentoxide, strontium bismuthtantalate (SBT), barium strontium tantalate (BST), etc. While exhibitinggreatly increased dielectric strength, these materials have beendifficult to integrate with existing fabrication technology.

Another issue raised by the continual scaling of integrated circuitdimensions is the difficulty of producing adequately conductive metallines for wiring the circuitry within integrated circuits. One manner ofsimplifying the process of metallization is by employing damascenetechniques. Rather than depositing blanket metal layers and etching awayexcess metal to leave wiring patterns, damascene processing involvesforming templates for wiring by way of trenches in an insulating layer.Metal overfills the trenches and a polishing step removes excess metaloutside the trenches. Metal is thus left in a desired wiring patternwithin the trenches. Where contact holes or vias extending from thefloor of the trenches to lower conductive elements are simultaneouslyfilled with metal, the method is known as dual damascene processing.

Unfortunately, scaling introduces difficulties with damascene processes,particularly when fast diffusing metals like copper are employed for themetal lines and contacts. In order to prevent peeling of metal linesfrom the surrounding insulation and to prevent diffusion spikes causingshorts across lines, one or more lining layers are formed within thetrenches (and vias, in dual damascene processing) prior to metal fill.Typically, metal adhesion layers and metal nitride barrier layers areemployed. A metal seed layer may also be needed if the trenches are tobe filled by electroplating.

These lining layers occupy a considerable volume of the availabletrenches, reducing room available for the more highly conductive metalfiller. Conductivity is thus reduced relative to the same trenchesfilled completely with metal. Moreover, employing metal nitride liners,though advantageously containing the metal filler and preventing shortcircuits, has been known to induce electromigration during circuitoperation, leading to voids and further reduced conductivity along themetal lines.

Accordingly, a need exists for thin films that overcome problemsassociated with gate dielectrics constructed of traditional materialssuch as silicon nitride and silicon oxide. A need also exists forimproved structures and methods for containing metal within damascenetrenches without excessive losses in conductivity.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The aforementioned and other needs are satisfied by several aspects ofthe present invention.

In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a thin film is providedin an integrated circuit. The film has a small thickness, definedbetween an upper surface and a lower surface. A controlled, varyingcomposition is provided through this small thickness. Exemplarythicknesses are preferably less than about 100 Å, more preferably lessthan about 50 Å and can be on the order of 10 Å.

In accordance with one embodiment, the film comprises a gate dielectricfor an integrated thin film transistor. In one arrangement, a siliconoxide layer is provided with a graded concentration of nitrogen. Despitethe thinness of the layer, such a gradient can be maintained.Advantageously, a relatively pure silicon dioxide can be provided at thelower level for a high quality channel interface, while a high nitrogencontent at the upper surface aids in resisting boron diffusion from thepolysilicon gate electrode. In another arrangement, other dielectricmaterials can be mixed in a graded fashion to obtain desirable interfaceproperties from one material and desirable bulk properties from anothermaterial, without undesirable sharp interfaces within the gatedielectric. For example, Al₂O₃ has a high dielectric constant anddesirable interface properties, while ZrO₂ has yet a higher dielectricconstant, which is desirable for the “bulk” of the gate dielectric.

In accordance with a second embodiment, the film comprises a transitionlayer between a barrier film and a more conductive wiring material. Inthe illustrated embodiment, a thin metal nitride layer is provided witha graded concentration of copper. The nitride layer can be madeexceedingly thin, leaving more room for more conductive metal within adamascene trench, for example. Advantageously, an effective diffusionbarrier with metal nitride can be provided at the lower surface, while ahigh copper content at the upper surface provides the conductivityneeded for service as an electroplating seed layer. The gradualtransition also reduces electromigration, as compared to structureshaving sharp barrier-metal interfaces.

In accordance with another aspect of the invention, a method is providedfor forming a thin film in an integrated circuit, with varyingcomposition through its thickness. The method includes alternatinglyintroducing at least a first species and a second species to a substratein each of a plurality of deposition cycles while the substrate issupported within a reaction chamber. A third species is introduced tothe substrate in a plurality of the deposition cycles. The amount of thethird species can vary in the different cycles in which it isintroduced. Alternatively, the third species is supplied in its ownsource gas pulse, which pulse is employed with increasing or decreasingfrequency as the thin film deposition proceeds (e.g., none during afirst stage, every fourth cycle during a second stage, every cycleduring a third stage, etc.).

Advantageously, the amount of the impurity varies between zero duringearly deposition cycles and a maximum amount during late depositioncycles. In one example, a silicon source gas adsorbs upon the substratein a first phase of each cycle, while an oxidant source gas in a secondphase of the cycle forms silicon oxide. After a relatively pure siliconoxide covers the substrate surface, small amounts of a nitrogen sourcegas are introduced during the second phase. The amount of nitrogensource gas increases with each cycle thereafter. The amount of oxidantduring the second phase can also decrease, such that a pure siliconnitride upper surface most preferably results, with graded nitrogencontent between the upper and lower surfaces of the dielectric.Similarly, in a second example, tungsten, reducing and nitrogen sourcesprovide metal nitride in first through third phases. A copper source andreducing agents in fourth and fifth phases provide copper. In successivecycles, the relative proportions of the first through third phases(producing no more than about one monolayer of WN) and the fourththrough fifth phases (producing no more than about one monolayer of Cu)changed. The increases/reductions can be altered step-wise, e.g., everytwo cycles, every three cycles, every five cycles, etc.

According to another aspect of the invention, selectively introducedimpurity phases or pulses can replace atoms of a previous phase in athermodynamically favored substitution reaction. Grading can beaccomplished by varying the frequency of the impurity phase through theatomic layer deposition process. Alternatively, the frequency of theimpurity phase can be kept constant while the duration of the impurityphase is varied throughout the deposition process, or a combination ofvarying frequency and duration can be employed.

Due to the fine control provided by atomic layer deposition, thisgrading can be provided in very thin layers. Moreover, the lowtemperatures during the process enables maintenance of the desiredimpurity content profile.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and further aspects of the invention will be readily apparent tothose skilled in the art from the following description and the attacheddrawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a partially schematic, sectional view of a single-substratereaction chamber, including some surrounding reactor components, for usein conjunction with preferred embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a schematic sectional view of a partially fabricatedintegrated circuit, illustrating a gate dielectric layer sandwichedbetween a gate electrode and a semiconductor layer.

FIGS. 3-6 schematically illustrate monolayer-by-monolayer deposition ofa gate dielectric, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of theinvention. In the illustrated embodiments, a “monolayer” is formed everyfew cycles in an alternating, cyclical process.

FIG. 7 is an exemplary gas flow diagram in accordance with a preferredmethod of depositing ultrathin graded dielectric layers.

FIG. 8 is a theoretical reverse Auger profile of a graded dielectriclayer constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment.

FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-section of a wire and contact formed in adual damascene trench and via, respectively, including barrier and metallayers.

FIG. 10 is an enlarged view of the section 10—10 in FIG. 9, illustratinga graded transition layer formed between the barrier and metal layers.

FIG. 11 is a theoretical Auger profile of a graded barrier-to-metaltransition region, constructed in accordance with a preferredembodiment.

FIG. 12 is an exemplary gas flow diagram in accordance with oneembodiment for depositing graded conductive layers.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Although described in the context of graded gate dielectric layers in anintegrated transistor stack and graded transitions from barrier to metallayers, the skilled artisan will readily find application for theprincipals disclosed here in a number of other contexts. The processesand layer structures disclosed herein have particular utility whereextremely thin layers are desired with tailored concentrations ofimpurities through the thickness of the layer.

It is often desirable to provide a graded or otherwise varyingcomposition through the thickness of a film in an integrated circuit.Sharp boundaries between different layers can disadvantageouslydemonstrate poor adhesion, undesirable electrical qualities, lack ofprocess control, etc.

For very thin films, for example thinner than 10 nm, it is verydifficult to realize precisely tailored profiles with conventionalfabrication methods. The preferred embodiments, however, employ atomiclayer deposition (ALD), which facilitates the formation of thin filmsmonolayer by monolayer. Indeed, control exists on a smaller thanmonolayer scale, due to stearic hindrance of bulky source chemicalmolecules producing less than one monolayer per cycle. The capability oflayering atomically thin monolayers enables forming more preciseconcentration gradients from the lower surface (e.g., gate oxide/Sisubstrate interface) to the upper surface (e.g., gate electrode/gatedielectric interface).

Accordingly, the preferred embodiments provide methods of more preciselytailoring impurity content in thin layers formed within integratedcircuits. The illustrated embodiments described below thus includemethods of building up a thin film in discrete steps of monolayers ofmaterial and are thus species of atomic layer deposition (ALD). Thecomposition of each discrete layer can be tailored by selectivelyintroducing the desired chemistry for each monolayer to be deposited.For example, by means of ALD, a particular combination of introducedgases react with, deposit or adsorb upon the workpiece until, by thenature of the deposition chemistry itself, the process self-terminates.Regardless of the length of exposure, the process gases do notcontribute further to the deposition. To deposit subsequent monolayers,different chemical combinations are introduced in the process chambersuch as will react with or adsorb upon the previously formed monolayer.Desirably, the second chemistry or a subsequent chemistry forms anothermonolayer, also in a self-limiting manner. These self-limitingmonolayers are alternated as many times as desired to form a film ofsuitable thickness.

The very nature of this method allows a change of chemistry for eachdiscrete cycle. Accordingly, the composition of the resulting thin filmcan be changed incrementally, for example, in each cycle, in everysecond cycle, or in any other desired progression. Additionally, becauseALD can be conducted at very low temperatures, relative to conventionalthermal oxidation and conventional CVD processes, diffusion during theprocess can be effectively limited. For the purpose of illustrating aratio between oxide thickness and corresponding number of layers, a thinfilm of 2-nm silicon oxide, for example, contains about seven (7)monolayers. In accordance with the illustrated embodiment, sevenmonolayers of silicon oxide can be formed in about 18-22 cycles of anALD process. Thus, even for such an extremely thin layer, thecomposition can be changed such that a different impurity concentrationcan be incorporated into the first monolayer as compared to thatincorporated into the seventh monolayer.

Preferred Process Reactor

FIG. 1 shows a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) reactor 10, including aquartz process or reaction chamber 12, constructed in accordance with apreferred embodiment, and for which the methods disclosed herein haveparticular utility. The illustrated reactor 10 comprises a processmodule commercially available under the trade name Epsilon™ from ASMAmerica, Inc., of Phoenix, Ariz., adapted to include a remote plasmasource. While the preferred embodiments are discussed in the context ofa single-substrate CVD reactor, it will be understood that the disclosedprocesses will have application in CVD reactors of other types, havingreaction chambers of different geometries from those discussed herein.In other arrangements, the preferred processes can be conducted in areactor commercially available under the trade name Pulsar™ 2000 fromASM Microchemistry, Ltd. of Finland, specifically designed for ALD.

A plurality of radiant heat sources are supported outside the chamber12, to provide heat energy to the chamber 12 without appreciableabsorption by the quartz chamber 12 walls. While the preferredembodiments are described in the context of a “cold wall” CVD reactorfor processing semiconductor wafers, it will be understood that theprocessing methods described herein will have utility in conjunctionwith other heating/cooling systems, such as those employing inductive orresistive heating.

The illustrated radiant heat sources comprise an upper heating assemblyof elongated tube-type radiant heating elements 13. The upper heatingelements 13 are preferably disposed in spaced-apart parallelrelationship and also substantially parallel with the reactant gas flowpath through the underlying reaction chamber 12. A lower heatingassembly comprises similar elongated tube-type radiant heating elements14 below the reaction chamber 12, preferably oriented transverse to theupper heating elements 13. Desirably, a portion of the radiant heat isdiffusely reflected into the chamber 12 by rough specular reflectorplates above and below the upper and lower lamps 13, 14, respectively.Additionally, a plurality of spot lamps 15 supply concentrated heat tothe underside of the wafer support structure, to counteract a heat sinkeffect created by cold support structures extending through the bottomof the reaction chamber 12.

Each of the elongated tube type heating elements 13, 14 is preferably ahigh intensity tungsten filament lamp having a transparent quartzenvelope containing a halogen gas, such as iodine. Such lamps producefull-spectrum radiant heat energy transmitted through the walls of thereaction chamber 12 without appreciable absorption. As is known in theart of semiconductor processing equipment, the power of the variouslamps 13, 14, 15 can be controlled independently or in grouped zones inresponse to temperature sensors.

A workpiece or substrate, preferably comprising a silicon wafer 16, isshown supported within the reaction chamber 12 upon a substrate or wafersupport structure 18. Note that, while the substrate of the illustratedembodiment is a single-crystal silicon wafer, it will be understood thatthe term “substrate” broadly refers to any structure on which a layer isto be deposited. The support structure 18 includes a susceptor 20, aquartz support spider 22 extending from a shaft 24 through a dependingtube 26, and numerous surrounding elements that facilitate laminar gasflow and uniform temperatures across the wafer 16.

The illustrated reaction chamber 12 includes an inlet port 40 for theinjection of reactant and carrier gases, and the wafer 16 can also bereceived therethrough. An outlet port 42 is on the opposite side of thechamber 12, with the wafer support structure 18 positioned between theinlet 40 and outlet 42.

An inlet component 44 is fitted to the reaction chamber, adapted tosurround the inlet port 40, and includes a horizontally elongated slot45 through which the wafer 16 can be inserted. The slot 45 isselectively sealed by a gate valve (not shown) during operation. Agenerally vertical inlet 46 receives gases from remote sources, andcommunicates such gases with the slot 45 and the inlet port 40.

The reactor also includes remote sources (not shown) of process gases,which communicate with the inlet 46 via gas lines with attendant safetyand control valves, as well as mass flow controllers (“MFCs”) that arecoordinated at a gas panel, as will be understood by one of skill in theart.

For the first illustrated embodiment, gas sources include tanks holdinga silicon-containing gas, preferably a silane such as monosilane (SiH₄),silicon tetrachloride (SiCl₄), dichlorosilane (DCS or SiH₂Cl₂),trichlorosilane (TCS or SiHCl₃), or other silane or halosilane siliconsources; an oxidant source gas, such as O₂, O₃, O radicals, H₂O, NO orN₂O; and a nitrogen source gas, such as NH₃. Metal source gases can alsobe employed for deposition of high k metal oxides. For the secondembodiment, source gases include one or more metal source gases (e.g.,WF₆, TiCl₄, CuCl, etc.), a nitrogen source gas (e.g., NH₃) and areducing agent (e.g., triethyl boron or TEB).

The silicon sources can include a bubbler and a gas line for bubbling H₂through a liquid solution such as TCS, to more effectively transportsilicon-containing gas molecules to the reaction chamber in gaseousform. Many metal sources can similarly include liquid solutions andbubblers. The reactor 10 can also include other source gases, such asdopant gases, including phosphine (PH₃), arsine (AsH₃), and/or diborane(B₂H₆); etchants for cleaning the reactor walls (e.g., HCl); a germaniumsource for doping or formation of SiGe films; etc.

In the illustrated embodiment, an optional generator of excited species,commonly referred to as a remote plasma generator 60, is providedremotely or upstream from the reaction area, and preferably upstreamfrom the chamber 12. An exemplary remote excited species generator isavailable commercially under the trade name TR-850 from Rapid ReactiveRadicals Technology GmbH of Munich, Germany. As known in the art, thegenerator 60 couples power to a gas to generate excited species. In theillustrated embodiment, the generator 60 couples microwave energy from amagnetron to a flowing gas in an applicator along a gas line 62. Asource of precursor gases 63 is coupled to the gas line 62 forintroduction into the excited species generator 60. A source of carriergas 64 is also coupled to the gas line 62. One or more further branchlines 65 can also be provided for additional reactants. As is known inthe art, the gas sources 63, 64 can comprise gas bombs, bubblers, etc.,depending upon the form and volatility of the reactant species. Each gasline can be provided with separate mass flow controllers (MFC) andvalves, as shown, to allow selection of relative amounts of carrier andreactant species introduced to the generator 60 and thence into thereaction chamber 12.

An outlet component 48 mounts to the process chamber 12 such that anexhaust opening 49 aligns with the outlet port 42 and leads to exhaustconduits 50. The conduits 50, in turn, communicate with suitable vacuummeans (not shown) for drawing process gases through the chamber 12 andto reduce pressure, if desired.

Graded Gate Dielectrics

As noted above, the trend in integrated circuit fabrication is tofurther miniaturize devices. With devices getting smaller, it isbecoming increasingly more difficult to deposit thin layers, such asgate oxide layers, by conventional means. Furthermore, the nature ofsilicon oxide layers will need to change to address desired electricalcharacteristics of gate dielectrics.

Gate dielectrics in integrated transistors should not only have lowdefect densities but should also resist diffusion of impurities from theoverlying gate electrode into the gate dielectric. Silicon oxide hasbeen successfully used now for decades as a gate dielectric material,but today's circuit designs impose the use of thinner and thinnerlayers. As a result of the thinner layers, dopant (e.g., boron)diffusion becomes more of a problem.

Incorporation of nitrogen into the gate dielectric film can effectivelyreduce boron diffusion. As has been recognized elsewhere in the art,however, nitride at the channel interface leads to poor interfaceproperties and consequently poor electrical performance. Accordingly, aresultant dielectric structure has pure silicon oxide at the channelinterface and silicon nitride at higher levels.

Conventionally, silicon oxide gate dielectric films are made by thermaloxidation of the underlying silicon substrate. To incorporate nitrogen,nitrogen-containing gases can be added to the main oxygen stream, and/ora post-deposition treatment can be performed with nitrogen-containinggases or nitrogen implantation. Such methods can either incorporatenitrogen into the oxide material to form silicon oxynitride(SiO_(x)N_(y)) or form a Si₃N₄ layer over the oxide. In either case, itis difficult to control the nitrogen content in the film, especially forcurrent and future generation of integrated circuit devices where thegate dielectric material is very thin (e.g., less than 7 nm). For suchultrathin dielectrics, conventional methods of incorporating nitrogeninto a gate dielectric cannot be controlled to produce uniformelectrical characteristics across the substrate while still minimizingnitrogen content at the interface with the substrate.

The first embodiment involves alternating adsorption of no more thanabout a monolayer of silicon with oxidation of the previously adsorbedmonolayer in an alternating layer silicon oxide process. During theoxidation stage, nitrogen can also be selectively incorporated.Essentially, by mixing these two gases, oxynitride films with anydesired ratio of oxygen to nitrogen can be grown. In the preferredembodiment, varying reactant ratios during the cyclical process, thecomposition formed by each cycle can be tailored. Most preferably, thedeposition begins with pure silicon oxide and ends with pure siliconnitride, with any desired grading through the thickness.

The substrate upon which deposition is to occur is initially preparedfor the self-limiting deposition process. In the illustrated embodiment,the substrate is a semiconductor material in which a transistor channelis formed. The semiconductor substrate can be formed of an epitaxiallayer or formed of the top portions of an intrinsically doped siliconwafer. In other arrangements, the substrate can comprise alternativematerials, such as III-V semiconductors.

Surface preparation desirably leaves a surface termination that readilyreacts with the first reactant in the preferred ALD process. In theillustrated embodiment, wherein a dielectric layer is to be formed overa single-crystal silicon layer or wafer, the bare silicon surfacepreferably is terminated with hydroxyl (OH) tails. As will beappreciated by the skilled artisan, such a surface termination can bereadily obtained simply by exposure a clean room atmosphere after awafer clean.

In accordance with the preferred embodiment, at least one workpiece orwafer is loaded into the process chamber and readied for processing.Purge gas is preferably flowed through the chamber to remove anyatmospheric contaminants.

Temperature and pressure process parameters can be modified to attainthe desired film characteristics. If necessary, the wafer is ramped tothe desired process temperature by increasing power output to the lamps13, 14 and 15. Advantageously, however, the illustrated self-limitingreaction can be conducted at low temperatures, such that the reactor canbe maintained constantly at the reaction temperature without rampingbetween workpiece changes. The desired pressure level, if other thanatmospheric, can be attained using a conventional vacuum pump as knownby those skilled in the art. For the present silicon oxynitride process,for example, it is preferable to maintaining a process temperature ofbetween about 100° C. and 500° C., more preferably between about 200° C.and 400° C., and most preferably between about 300° C. and 400° C.Desirably, the process is also relatively insensitive to pressure,though the preferable pressure range is between about 1 Torr and 100Torr, and more preferably between about 5 Torr and 15 Torr.

In an alternate embodiment of the present invention, the self-limitingreaction can take place at even lower temperatures. Using remote-plasmaexcited oxygen and/or nitrogen sources, even room temperature processingis plausible. Consequently, inter-diffusion of the discrete layers canbe avoided and as long as post-treatments at high temperatures do nottake place in an environment of oxygen or nitrogen containing gases, thedeposited composition profile will stay intact. As noted above, theplasma generator 60 of FIG. 1 can couple microwave energy to flowingreactant gases to ignite a plasma. Desirably, ionic species recombineprior to entering the process chamber, thereby minimizing damage to theworkpiece and the chamber itself, while radicals such as N and O surviveto provide boosted reactivity to the oxygen and/or N phases of theprocess.

When the workpiece is at the desired reaction temperature and thechamber is at the desired pressure level, process and carrier gases arethen communicated to the process chamber. Unreacted process and carriergas and any gaseous reaction by-products are thus exhausted. The carriergas can comprise any of a number of known non-reactive gases, such as H₂N₂, Ar, He, etc. In the illustrated embodiment, N₂ is used as thecarrier gas.

A first chemical species is then adsorbed upon the prepared depositionsubstrate. In the illustrated embodiment, the first species comprises asilicon-containing species, and includes at least one other ligand thatresults in a self-terminating monolayer of the silicon-containingspecies. For example, the silicon source gas for the deposition ofsilicon oxide can include: silanes of the formula Si_(m)L_(2m+2) whereinm is an integer 1-3; siloxanes of the formula Si_(y)O_(y−1)L_(2y+2)wherein y is an integer 2-4; and silazanes of the Siy(NH)_(y)−1L_(2y−2)wherein y is an integer 2-4. In these formulae each L can independentlybe H, F, Cl, Br, I, alkyl, aryl, alkoxy, vinyl (—CH═CH₂), cyano (—CN),isocyanato (—NCO), amino, silyl (H₃Si—), alkylsilyl, alkoxysilyl,silylene or alkylsiloxane, whereby alkyl and alkoxy groups can be linearor branched and may contain at least one substitute. Volatile silanolsand cyclic silicon compounds are examples of other suitable siliconsource compounds.

Of these silicon compounds, preferably silanes and silazanes are usedfor the deposition of pure silicon nitride because siloxanes have arather strong Si—O bond. Silicon compounds can be purchased, e.g., fromGelest, Inc., 612 William Leigh Drive, Tullytown, Pa. 19007-6308, UnitedStates of America.

Most preferably, the silicon source gas comprises dichlorosilane (DCS)or trichlorosilane (TCS) which is injected into the carrier gas flow. Inthe preferred reactor, the silicon source gas is flowed at a rate ofbetween about 10 sccm and 500 sccm, more preferably between about 100sccm and 300 sccm. The silicon source gas is maintained for betweenabout 0.1 second and 1 second under the preferred temperature andpressure conditions, and more preferably for between about 0.3 secondand 0.7 second. A monolayer of silicon chemisorbs on the siliconsubstrate surface terminated with chloride tails or ligands. The surfacetermination desirably inhibits further reaction with the silicon sourcegas and carrier gas.

After the pulse of the first species, a second species is provided tothe substrate. In the illustrated embodiment, the second speciescomprises an oxidant, most preferably comprising pure H₂O vapor. The H₂Ois preferably injected into the carrier gas flow at a rate of betweenabout 10 sccm and 500 sccm, more preferably between about 100 sccm and300 sccm. Under the preferred temperature and pressure conditions, theH₂O pulse is maintained for between about 0.1 second and 1 second underthe preferred temperature and pressure conditions, and more preferablyfor between about 0.3 second and 0.7 second. After the oxidant pulse isturned off, carrier gas is preferably allowed to flow for sufficienttime to purge the oxidant from the chamber prior to the next reactantpulse. In other arrangements, it will be understood that the chamber canbe evacuated to remove the second reactant species.

During the second reactant pulse, the oxidant reacts with the chloridetermination of the previous pulse, leaving oxygen atoms in place of theligands. Desirably, stoichiometric or near stoichiometric SiO₂ is left.

In accordance with the principals of atomic layer deposition, a secondpulse of the silicon source gas is then injected into the carrier gasflow, the pulse is stopped and the silicon source gas removed from thechamber, followed by a second oxidant source gas pulse, which is then inturn stopped and removed from the chamber. These pulses are thencontinually alternated until the dielectric layer attains its desiredthickness.

An impurity source gas is also provided to at least one of the cycles inthe alternating process. In the dielectric embodiment shown, theimpurity preferably comprises nitrogen, and the impurity source gaspreferably comprises ammonia (NH₃) or hydrazine (N₂H₄) added to thealternating process. Both ammonia and hydrazine are fairly reactivegases, making them suitable for low temperature ALD processing. It willbe understood, in view of the disclosed embodiment of FIGS. 9-13 below,that in one embodiment, the ammonia is added in separate ammonia phases(each comprising an ammonia pulse and a purge pulse) following siliconphases. The ammonia phases can gradually replace oxidant source gasphases, such as one every ten cycles, gradually increasing to one everyother cycle and preferably ending with complete replacement of theoxidant phases. Thus, the alternating process begins depositing siliconoxide (by alternating silicon and oxidant phases); deposits a gradedsilicon oxynitride with increasing levels of nitrogen in an intermediateportion of the process (by gradually replacing an increasing proportionof the oxidant phases with nitrogen and particularly ammonia phases);and, by the time the desired dielectric thickness is reached, thealternating process deposits silicon nitride (by alternating silicon andammonia phases).

In the illustrated embodiment, however, ammonia is added to the oxygenphase. Different amounts of NH₃ are added to different oxidant sourcegas pulses throughout the process. Thus, a desired amount of nitrogencan be selectively incorporated into each monolayer of silicon dioxideand a silicon oxynitride layer results with a tailored nitrogen contentprofile.

The skilled artisan will appreciate, in view of the present disclosure,that the reaction between ammonia and the silicon complex will have adifferent thermodynamic favorability, as compared to the reactionbetween the oxidant and the silicon complex. Accordingly, theproportions of ammonia to oxidant do not necessarily equal theproportions of nitrogen to oxygen in the resultant silicon oxynitride.The skilled artisan can readily account for thermodynamic competitionthrough routine experimentation to determine the appropriate parametersfor the desired levels of nitrogen incorporation. Providing nitrogenactive species through a remote plasma generator, particularly inconjunction with oxygen active species, can maximize the effect ofvarying the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen sources.

FIG. 7 is a gas flow diagram in accordance with one embodiment,illustrating the first four cycles 301 a-301 d in an exemplaryself-limiting deposition sequence. The illustrated sequence includes aconstant flow of a carrier gas 300. As shown, a first pulse or spike 302a of the silicon source gas is provided to form the firstself-terminated silicon monolayer. After a first purge step 303, duringwhich carrier gas continues to flow until the silicon source gas hasbeen removed from the chamber, a first oxidant source gas pulse or spike304 a is provided. After a second purge 303, a second silicon source gaspulse 302 b is provided, followed by a second oxidant source gas 304 b,a third silicon source gas pulse 302 c, a third oxidant source gas pulse304 c, etc. in alternating pulses separated by purge steps 303.

As shown, at some point after the first cycle 301 a (forming the firstsilicon oxide monolayer) a first impurity source gas pulse 306 b isprovided, preferably during an oxidant source gas pulse 304 b.Desirably, a relatively low percentage of the impurity source gas(preferably comprising NH₃) is provided during this first pulse 306 b.During subsequent oxidant source gas pulses 304 c, 304 d, etc.,progressively greater flows of the impurity source gas are provided inpulses 306 c, 306 d, etc. Where progressively greater flows of theimpurity source gas are employed, it can be advantageous to supplyreactants perpendicularly to the substrate surface, such as by way of anoverhead showerhead. In the case of competing adsorption of two sourcechemicals, all of the substrate surface is preferably exposedsimultaneously to the gas mixture. Thus concentration gradients from theinlet side to the exhaust side of the substrate can be avoided.

Note that FIG. 7 is schematic only, and not drawn to scale.Additionally, the preferred process conditions actually result in a fullmonolayer formed after a plurality of cycles. While theoretically thereactants will chemisorb at each available site on the exposed layer ofthe workpiece, physical size of the adsorbed species (and particularlywith terminating ligands) will generally limit coverage with each cycleto a fraction of a monolayer. In the illustrated embodiment, on averageroughly 1 Å of SiO₂ forms per cycle, whereas a true monolayer of SiO₂ isabout 3 Å in thickness, such that a full monolayer effectively formsapproximately every three cycles, where each cycle is represented by apair of silicon source gas and oxidant source gas pulses.

Accordingly, the first impurity source gas pulse 306 b is preferablyconducted after three silicon source gas pulses alternated with threeoxidant source gas pulses. In this manner, at least a full monolayer ofsilicon dioxide is provided prior to introduction of nitrogen doping.More preferably, the first ammonia pulse 306 b is provided after sixcycles, thereby providing additional insurance against nitrogendiffusion through to the substrate-dielectric interface. In theillustrated embodiment, ammonia is flowed in the first pulse 306 b atbetween about 0 sccm and 10 sccm, more preferably between about 0 sccmand 5 sccm. Thereafter, the ammonia pulses are increased in each cycleby about 50 sccm.

Though not illustrated, the oxidant source gas pulses 304 a, 304 b, etc.can be reduced in the course of increasing the impurity source gas flow.Accordingly, nitrogen content in the resultant silicon oxynitridedielectric layer can be increased from 0 percent at the lower surface upto stoichiometric Si₃N₄ at the upper surface.

FIG. 2 shows a schematic sectional view of a transistor structure 70 ina partially fabricated integrated circuit, constructed in accordancewith a preferred embodiment, and for which the methods disclosed hereinhave particular utility. A gate dielectric layer 72 is sandwichedbetween a gate electrode 74 and a semiconductor substrate 76. The gatedielectric 72 thus extends between a substrate interface 78 and anelectrode interface 80. In the illustrated embodiment, the gateelectrode 74 comprises a polysilicon layer. The substrate 76 comprisesany suitable semiconductor material and in the illustrated embodimentcomprises a layer of intrinsically doped single-crystal silicon. Inaccordance with one embodiment, the gate dielectric 72 comprises siliconoxide having a varying and preferably graded nitrogen content throughthe thickness thereof. In other embodiments, Al₂O₃ can serve as a pureinterface with silicon, graded into a higher dielectric constantmaterial such as ZrO₂ to provide a higher overall dielectric constant.The gate electrode 74 is additionally protected by sidewall spacers 82and a dielectric cap layer 84, each of which can comprise conventionalinsulating materials such as silicon oxide or silicon nitride. The gateelectrode 74 can also include high conductivity strapping layers, suchas metal nitrides, metal silicides and pure metals, for faster lateralsignal transmission.

FIGS. 3 through 5 illustrate a sequence of forming the preferred gatedielectric 72 one monolayer at a time. Note that the figures areschematic representations only. In general, the concentration ofimpurities in each monolayer can vary as desired. In the illustratedembodiment, a linear profile of impurity concentration is preferred. Inother arrangements, the impurity concentration can vary exponentially,by step function, etc. through the thickness of thin film.

FIG. 3 illustrates a first monolayer 102 of silicon oxide formeddirectly on the surface of the semiconductor substrate 76. In accordancewith the preferred processing conditions, set forth above with respectto FIG. 7, such a monolayer can be formed after an average of aboutthree cycles of the ALD alternating silicon and oxidant source gaspulses. Desirably, the first or substrate interface monolayer 102 haslittle or no impurity concentration, preferably lower than about 0.1%impurity, and more preferably the monolayer 102 is formed of pure SiO₂.

FIG. 4 illustrates a second monolayer 104 of silicon oxide formeddirectly on the surface of the first monolayer 102 of silicon oxide. Thesecond monolayer 104 preferably has a low impurity concentration(nitrogen in the preferred embodiment), but greater than theconcentration in the preceding monolayer 102.

With reference to FIG. 5, a third monolayer 106 is deposited directly onthe surface of the second monolayer 104. In the illustrated embodiment,the third monolayer 106 has yet a higher impurity (nitrogen)concentration than the second monolayer 104. Similarly, a plurality ofadditional monolayers are deposited one at a time until the desiredfinal thickness is achieved. Each monolayer can have a differentimpurity concentration and the impurity profile through the thickness ofthe film can be tailored accordingly.

Referring to FIG. 6, a last monolayer 114 is deposited to completeformation of the gate dielectric layer. The last monolayer 114 thusdefines the gate electrode interface 80 with conductive material to bedeposited thereover. It will be understood, of course, that FIG. 6 ismerely schematic and that many more monolayers than the sevenillustrated can be employed to form the desired final thickness.Moreover, individual monolayers 102 to 114 would not be sharplydefinable in the final structure, contrary to the schematicillustration.

In the illustrated embodiments, the impurity concentration is controlledto vary from a lowest concentration at the substrate interface 78 to ahighest concentration at the gate electrode interface 80. Preferably,the gate dielectric 72 has a nitrogen concentration at the substrateinterface 78 of less than about 0.1%, and more preferably about 0%.Nitrogen content at the gate electrode interface 80, on the other hand,is preferably greater than about 5%, more preferably greater than about8%, and most preferably greater than about 10%. The nitrogen contentbetween these two interfaces 78, 80 is roughly linearly graded. It willbe understood, however, that any other desired grading profile (e.g.,parabolic, exponential, elliptical, etc.) can be achieved by tailoringthe percentage of nitrogen source gas during each oxidation phase.

The resultant thin film has an actual thickness of less than about 7 nm.Preferably, the gate dielectric has an actual thickness of less thanabout 6 nm, more preferably less than about 5 nm, and in the illustratedembodiment has a thickness of about 2 nm, including about 7 monolayers.Since the illustrated gate dielectric 72 incorporates a significantnitrogen content, it preferably exhibits an equivalent oxide thicknessof less than 2.0 nm, more preferably less than about 1.7 nm and mostpreferably less than about 1.6 nm. The illustrated linearly gradedoxynitride has an equivalent oxide thickness of about 1.7 nm.

FIG. 8 is a theoretical reverse Auger profile of a dielectric layerconstructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment, illustrating thepercentage of impurity content in a dielectric layer as a function ofthe distance from the semiconductor substrate interface. As shown, inthe preferred embodiment, at or near the semiconductor substrateinterface, the impurity content 350 (i.e., nitrogen) is at a minimum,whereas the oxygen content 340 is at a maximum. As the distance from thesemiconductor substrate interface grows, the impurity concentration 350increases roughly linearly to a maximum, whereas the oxygen content 340decrease to a minimum.

Thus, at the substrate interface the gate dielectric preferablycomprises nearly pure silicon dioxide (SiO₂), whereas near the top ofthe layer (gate electrode interface) the gate dielectric comprisesnearly pure silicon nitride (Si₃N₄). It will be understood that such astructure can be created by an ALD process similar to FIG. 7, but wherethe oxidant pulse amplitudes decrease with every cycle or every fewcycles.

Accordingly, despite the extremely low thickness of the preferred gatedielectrics, a precisely controlled impurity content throughout thethickness can be achieved. Thus, in the illustrated embodiment, theinterface properties of silicon dioxide are obtained at the substratesurface, while nitrogen is incorporated in the remainder of the gatedielectric to reduce boron penetration and to increase the overalleffective dielectric constant of the gate dielectric. Employing ALDenables precise control at the level of atomic layers. Moreover, the lowtemperatures involved in the deposition allow maintenance of any desiredimpurity concentration at various points in the thickness, withoutinterdiffusion. In contrast, conventional techniques cannot be soprecisely controlled, and tend to result in even distribution of anyimpurity in such a thin layer, due to diffusion during processing and/oran inherent lack of control during the formation of such a thin gatedielectric layer.

Moreover, grading through the thickness of the layer advantageouslyenables better control of later processing. For example, the gatedielectric is typically etched over active areas (e.g., source and drainregions of the transistor) in order to form electrical contact to theseareas of the substrate. A gradual change in nitrogen content from theupper surface of the gate dielectric down to the substrate interfaceallows greater control over such etch processes as will be understood bythe skilled artisan. Accordingly, damage to the substrate is minimized.The skilled artisan will recognize other advantages to grading profilesin thin films used in integrated circuits.

While the illustrated example comprises grading a nitrogen concentrationin a silicon oxide layer, skilled artisan will readily appreciate, indue of the disclosure herein, that the same principles can be applied toforming graded profiles in other gate dielectric materials by ALD. Forexample, the inventors have found that aluminum oxide advantageouslydemonstrates a high dielectric constant (k) and also has good interfaceproperties with silicon oxide and/or silicon substrates. Accordingly, apure aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) layer can be first formed by ALD usingalternating pulses of an aluminum source gas and an oxidant.

Exemplary aluminum source gases include alkyl aluminum compounds, suchas trimethylaluminum (CH₃)₃Al, triethylaluminum (CH₃CH₂)₃Al,tri-n-butylaluminum (n-C₄H₉)₃Al, diisobutylaluminum hydride(i-C₄H₉)₂AlH, diethylaluminum ethoxide (C₂H₅)₂AlOC₂H₅, ethylaluminumdichloride (C₂H₅)₂AlCl₂, ethylaluminum sesquichloride (C₂H₅)₃Al₂Cl₃,diisobutylaluminum chloride (i-C₄H₉)₂AlCl and diethylaluminum iodide(C₂H₅)₂AlI. These compounds are commercially available from, e.g.,Albemarle Corporation, USA. Other aluminum source gases include aluminumalkoxides containing Al—O—C bonds, such as ethoxide Al(OC₂H₅)₃, aluminumisopropoxide Al[OCH(CH₃)₂]₃ and aluminum s-butoxide Al(OC₄H₉)₃. Thesecompounds are commercially available from, e.g., Strem Chemicals, Inc.,USA. The aluminum source can also comprise aluminum beta-diketonates,such as aluminum acetylacetonate Al(CH₃COCHCOCH₃)₃, often shortened asAl(acac)₃, and tris-(2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionato)aluminum,usually shortened as Al(thd)₃, Al(TMHD)₃ or Al(DPM)₃. Volatilehalogenated aluminum beta-diketonates are also commercially available,such as aluminum hexafluoroacetylacetonate Al(CF₃COCHCOCF₃)₃, oftenshortened as Al(hfac)₃. These compounds are commercially available from,e.g., Strem Chemicals, Inc., USA. Volatile, purely inorganic aluminumhalides such as aluminum chloride AlCl₃ or Al₂Cl₆, aluminum bromideAlBr₃, and aluminum iodide AlI₃ may also be used as precursors. At lowsubstrate temperatures, anhydrous aluminum nitrate can be used as analuminum source chemical for ALD. The synthesis of anhydrous Al(NO₃)₃has been described by G. N. Shirokova, S. Ya. Zhuk and V. Ya.Rosolovskii in Russian Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 21, 1976,pp. 799-802, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein byreference. The aluminum nitrate molecule breaks into aluminum oxide whenit is contacted with organic compounds, such as ethers.

Exemplary oxygen source gases include oxygen, water, hydrogen peroxide,ozone, alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropanol), etc.

An exemplary process comprises alternating trimethyl aluminum or TMAwith water, with purge pulses or evacuation steps therebetween. Eachpulse can have a duration of about 0.5 seconds, and the substrate can bemaintained at about 300° C. This process deposits an Al₂O₃ layer, whichis followed by grading by gradually adding to the ALD process a sourcegas that results in more desirable bulk properties (e.g., higherdielectric constant). For example, the TMA pulse can be substituted fora zirconium source gas pulse every few cycles, with increasing frequencyuntil pure zirconium dioxide (ZrO₂) is formed. In an exemplary process,ZrCl₄ serves as a zirconium source gas and can be deposited at the sametemperature (e.g., 300° C.) is the aluminum oxide ALD process.Alternatively, zirconium source gas can be introduced simultaneously andas an increasing proportion of the aluminum source gas during a metalpulse, which is continually alternating with an oxidant pulse. In thiscase, the skilled artisan can determine through routine experimentationwhat proportions of aluminum source gas to zirconium source gas shouldbe used to obtain the desired material proportions in the layer.Similarly, the skilled artisan will readily appreciate that other gatedielectric materials can also be created in this fashion.

In the above example of aluminum oxide and zirconium oxide, aluminumoxide serves as a good barrier diffusion with good electrical interfaceproperties, while zirconium dioxide provides a higher overall dielectricconstant value for the dielectric. The gate dielectric can again begraded from ZrO₂ until aluminum oxide forms for the upper interface,providing a good diffusion barrier against downward boron (B) diffusionfrom the gate electrode into the gate dielectric.

Another example of a graded material for the gate dielectric is siliconoxide at the lower interface, graded into a pure aluminum oxide for thebulk and upper surface of the gate dielectric.

Graded Interface Between Barrier and Metal Layers

FIGS. 9 through 13 illustrate a second embodiment of the presentinvention. Rather than a dielectric layer, the second embodimentinvolves a graded conductive film, particularly a graded transitionbetween a barrier layer (e.g., metal nitride) and a more conductivefiller layer (e.g., elemental metal).

With reference initially to FIGS. 9 and 10, a dual damascene structure400 is shown, constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment. Inparticular, an upper insulating layer 402 and a lower insulating layer404 are formed above a conductive circuit element 406. The insulatinglayers 402, 404 can comprise conventional oxides, such as oxide fromtetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) or borophosphosilicate glass (BPSG), orthey can comprise “low k” dielectrics in accordance with advancedprocess technology. The lower circuit element 406 typically comprises alower metal layer or landing pad, but in some instances can comprise asemiconductor layer.

The structure 400 is also shown with an etch stop layer 408 between theinsulating layers 402, 404, which can serve as a hard mask in theformation of the dual damascene structure, as will be appreciated by theskilled artisan. A lower insulating barrier layer 410 is also shownbetween the lower insulating layer 404 and the lower conductive layer406. Such a layer is particularly advisable when the lower conductiveelement 406 or overlying metal layers comprise copper, which can easilydiffuse through typical interlevel dielectrics and cause short circuits.Each of the hard mask 408 and barrier 410 can comprise silicon nitrideor silicon oxynitride.

The dual damascene structure 400 is formed by providing trenches 420 inthe upper insulating layer 402. The trenches 420 are typically formed ina desired pattern across the workpiece. A plurality of contact vias 422(one shown) extend downwardly from the trenches 420 in discretelocations along the trenches 420 to expose underlying circuit nodes.Together, the trenches 420 and contact vias 422 are arranged in paths tointerconnect underlying and overlying circuit elements in accordancewith an integrated circuit design. The trenches and contacts are filledwith conductive material to form these interconnects. The conductivematerial filling trenches 420 are referred to as metal runners, whilethe portions filling contact vias 422 are referred to as contacts. Indual damascene schemes, as shown, both trenches 420 and vias 422 arefilled simultaneously, whereas in other schemes, the contacts andrunners can be separately formed.

Typically, the dual damascene trenches and vias are first lined withlining layers 424 and then filled with a highly conductive material 426.In the illustrated embodiment, where the liners 424 are formed on allsurfaces of the trenches 420 and vias 422, the liners 424 areconductive. In other arrangements, where the liners are selectivelyformed only on insulating surfaces, the liners need not be conductive.Lining layers can include adhesion layers, barrier layers and/or seedlayers. Preferably, the lining layers 424 include at least two ofadhesion, barrier and seed layers, with at least one interface regionamong the layers comprising a graded region produced by an alternatinglayer deposition (ALD).

With reference to FIG. 10, the lining layers 424 of the illustratedembodiment include an optional adhesion layer 430, characterized by goodadhesion with the insulating surfaces 402, 404, 408, 410 (see FIG. 9) ofthe dual damascene structure. The adhesion layer can be formed by ALDprocesses, as disclosed in the provisional patent Application No.60/159,799 of Raaijmakers et al., filed Oct. 15, 1999 and entitledCONFORMAL LINING LAYERS FOR DAMASCENE METALLIZATION, and thecorresponding utility Application No. 09/644,416 of Raaijmakers et al.,filed Aug. 23, 2000 of the same title. The disclosure of the '799application and corresponding '416 U.S. utility application isincorporated herein by reference.

The illustrated lining layers 424 further comprise a barrier region 432,a transition region 434 and a seed layer region 436. Preferably, thebarrier region 432 comprises a conductive nitride, and particularly ametal nitride (e.g., WN, TiN, TaN, etc.). The transition region 434 alsocomprises a conductive nitride, but with varying levels of nitrogenthrough its thickness and/or different metal content. The seed region436 preferably comprises a highly conductive “elemental” metal, havingconductivity suitable for electroplating the filler metal 426 thereover.

In the illustrated embodiments, the adhesion layer 430 comprisestungsten (W); the barrier region 432 comprises tungsten nitride(WN_(x)); the transition region 434 comprises a graded layer of tungstencopper nitride [(WN_(x))_(y)Cu_(z)], where y and z vary through thethickness of the transition region 434; and the seed region 436comprises copper (Cu). Most preferably, the barrier 432, transition 434and seed 436 regions are formed in a continuous process without removingthe workpiece from the reaction chamber, and so from a processstandpoint can be considered regions within a single deposited layer 438having varying composition through its thickness.

The regions 432, 434, 436 can have any desired thickness suited to theparticular application. For the preferred dual damascene context, theliners are preferably as thin as possible while accomplishing theirrespective purposes. In particular, the barrier region 432 serves as adiffusion barrier but preferably occupies as little of the trench andvias as possible. Accordingly, the barrier region 432 is preferablybetween about 20 Å and 200 Å, more preferably between about 40 Å and 80Å, with an exemplary thickness for WN of about 50 Å. The transitionregion 434 transitions from metal nitride to pure metal while desirablyavoiding electromigration during circuit operation and otherdeficiencies of sharp metal/metal nitride boundaries and minimizingoverall thickness. Accordingly, the transition region 434 is preferablybetween about 7 Å and 200 Å, more preferably between about 10 Å and 80Å. In one embodiment, the transition region has a thickness of about 10Å and a copper content of about 0% at the interface with the barrierregion 432 and a copper content of about 50% at the interface with theseed region 436 (or with the copper filler, in the absence of a seedlayer). The seed region 436 should provide sufficient conductivity foruniform electroplating across the workpiece. While too thick a seedregion 436 is not a functional disadvantage, throughput can be increasedby depositing a minimum amount of copper by ALD while completing thefill by electroplating. Accordingly, the seed region 436 is preferablygreater than about 100 Å, with an exemplary thickness for Cu of about150 Å. Each of the layers has extremely good step coverage of the dualdamascene trenches and vias, preferably greater than about 90% (ratio ofsidewall coverage to field coverage), more preferably greater than about93%, and most preferably greater than about 97%.

With reference to FIG. 11, a theoretical Auger profile is shown for anexemplary transition region 434 of FIG. 10. The right side of the graphrepresents the lower surface of the transition region 434 as it blendsinto the underlying WN barrier region 432. The left side of the graphrepresents the top surface of the transition region 434 as it blendsinto the overlying Cu seed region 436. As shown, the transition regionhas a gradually reduced W and N content, going from right to left, witha simultaneously increasing Cu concentration. It will be understood thatthe shape of the curves can take on any desired shape and theillustrated rates of content grading are merely exemplary.

Advantageously, the process employs an intermediate reduction phase toremove halide tails between metal and nitrogen source phases. Thisintermediate reduction phase avoids build up of hydrogen halides thatcould be harmful to metal later to be formed, such as copper. It will beunderstood, however, that in other arrangements the intermediatereduction phase can be omitted.

TABLE Carrier Reactant Flow Re- Flow Temperature Pressure Time Pulse(slm) actant (sccm) (° C.) (Torr) (sec) 1^(st) metal 400 WF₆ 20 350 100.25 purge 400 — — 350 10 1.0 1^(st) reduce 400 TEB 40 350 10 0.05 purge400 — — 350 10 1.0 nitrogen 400 NH₃ 100  350 10 0.75 purge 400 — — 35010 1.0 2^(nd) metal 400 CuCl  4 350 10 0.2 purge 400 — — 350 10 1.02^(nd) reduce 400 TEB 40 350 10 0.2 purge 400 — — 350 10 1.0

With reference to the Table above, an exemplary process recipe forforming the desired graded layer, including barrier, transition and seedregions, will be described below. Five phases (each phase defined, inthe illustrated embodiment, as including purge following reactantpulses) are described:

-   -   (1) a first metal phase (e.g., WF₆ pulse+purge);    -   (2) a first reduction phase (e.g., TEB pulse+purge pulse);    -   (3) a nitrogen phase (e.g., NH₃ pulse+purge pulse);    -   (4) a second metal phase (e.g., CuCl pulse+purge pulse); and    -   (5) a second reduction phase (e.g., TEB pulse+purge pulse).

Varying proportions of these phases are utilized during the continuousdeposition process, depending upon the stage of the deposition process.In the illustrated embodiment, during a barrier stage, for example, onlyphases (1)-(3) are employed, together representing one cycle that leavesno more than about one monolayer of WN. During a transition stage,varying proportions of phases (1)-(3) and (4)-(5) are employed. During aseed stage, only phases (4)-(5) are employed, together representing onecycle that leaves no more than about one monolayer of Cu.

These stages will now be described in more detail below.

Barrier Deposition Stage

During an initial barrier deposition stage, only a barrier material,preferably metal nitride, is deposited. In the illustrated embodiment,only phases (1)-(3) in the Table above are alternated. In about 120-180cycles, about 50 Å of WN are produced. Each cycle can be identical.

In the first phase (1) of the first cycle, WF₆ chemisorbs upon theunderlying substrate, which in the illustrated embodiment comprises apreviously formed metal nitride. The metal nitride was most preferablyformed by a similar ALD process. The first metal source gas preferablycomprises a sufficient percentage of the carrier flow and is providedfor sufficient time, given the other process parameters, to saturate theunderlying barrier layer. No more than about a monolayer of tungstencomplex is left upon the barrier layer, and this monolayer isself-terminated with fluoride tails. As noted above, though typicallyless than one monolayer, this complex will be referred to herein as a“monolayer” for convenience.

After the WF₆ flow is stopped and purged by continued flow of carriergas, a second phase (2), comprising a pulse of reducing gas (TEB), issupplied to the workpiece. Advantageously, the reducing gas removes thefluoride tails from the tungsten complex, avoiding the formation ofhydrogen halides that could etch copper. It will be understood that, inother arrangements, this reducing phase may not be necessary.

After TEB flow is stopped and purged, a third phase (3), comprising apulse of nitrogen source gas (NH₃), is supplied to the workpiece. Inthis third phase, ammonia preferably comprises a sufficient percentageof the carrier flow and is provided for sufficient time, given the otherprocess parameters, to saturate the surface of the metal-containingmonolayer. The NH₃ readily reacts with the tungsten left exposed by thereducing phase, forming a monolayer of tungsten nitride (WN). Thereaction is self-limiting. Neither ammonia nor the carrier gas furtherreacts with the resulting tungsten nitride monolayer, and the monolayeris left with a nitrogen and NH_(x) bridge termination. The preferredtemperature and pressure parameters, moreover, inhibit diffusion ofammonia through the metal monolayer.

Following the nitrogen phase (3), i.e., after the nitrogen source gashas been removed from the chamber, preferably by purging with continuedcarrier gas flow, a new cycle is started with the first phase (1), i.e.,with a pulse of the first metal source gas (WF₆).

Desirably, this three-phase cycle (1)-(3) is repeated until sufficientbarrier material is formed, preferably between about 20 Å and 200 Å,more preferably between about 40 Å and 80 Å, with an exemplary thicknessof about 50 Å. Advantageously, this thin layer is provided withexcellent step coverage.

In the illustrated embodiment, carrier gas continues to flow at aconstant rate during all phases of each cycle. It will be understood,however, that reactants can be removed by evacuation of the chamberbetween alternating gas pulses. In one arrangement, the preferredreactor incorporates hardware and software to maintain a constantpressure during the pulsed deposition. The disclosures of U.S. Pat. No.4,747,367, issued May 31, 1988 to Posa and U.S. Pat. No. 4,761,269,issued Aug. 2, 1988 to Conger et al., are incorporated herein byreference.

Transition Deposition Stage

Following formation of the barrier region, in a continuous process, thecycles are altered to incorporate new phases during formation of thetransition region. In particular, the illustrated fourth and fifthphases (4), (5) are introduced into the cycles, thereby introducingcopper to the transition region. At least two, and preferably more thanten cycles, include the phases (4) and (5).

The introduction can be gradual. For example, two cycles can includeonly phases (1)-(3) as described above, producing WN, followed by athird cycle that includes all five phases (1)-(5), producing a mixtureof WN and Cu, followed again by two cycles that include only phases(1)-(3). Gradually, the frequency of Cu introduction is increased. Atsome point, several cycles in a row would include all five phases(1)-(5).

Two such five-phase cycles are shown in FIG. 12, and the Table abovepresents parameters for one cycle of an ALD process for depositing of agraded layer of tungsten nitride (WN) and copper (Cu). Preferably thelayer serves as an interface between a tungsten nitride barrier layerand a copper seed layer in trenches and contact vias of a dual damascenestructure. In the exemplary process recipe, a first metal source gascomprises tungsten hexafluoride (WF₆); a carrier gas comprises nitrogen(N₂); a first reducing agent comprises triethyl boron (TEB), a nitrogensource gas comprises ammonia (NH₃); a second metal source gas comprisescopper chloride (CuCl); and a second reducing agent comprises triethylboron (TEB).

A first five-phase cycle 450 is shown in FIG. 12. Initially, the firstthree cycles (1)-(3) are conducted as described above with respect tothe formation of the barrier region. Following the nitrogen phase (3),i.e., after the nitrogen source gas has been removed from the chamber,preferably by purging with continued carrier gas flow, a fourth phase(4) comprises flowing the second metal source gas. Copper chloridepreferably comprises a sufficient portion of the carrier flow and isprovided for sufficient time to saturate the surface left by theprevious phase. No more than about a monolayer of self-terminated metalcomplex, particularly chloride-terminated copper, is left over the metalnitride formed by the previous two phases. The second metal source gasis then removed from the chamber, preferably purged by continued carriergas flow.

In a fifth phase (5), the chloride-terminated surface is then reduced byflowing the reducing agent. Preferably, TEB flows to remove the chloridetails left by the previous phase.

In the next cycle 455, the first phase (1) again introduces the firstmetal source gas, which readily reacts with the surface of the coppermonolayer, again leaving a fluoride-terminated tungsten layer. Thesecond through fifth phases of the second cycle can then as describedwith respect to the cycle 450. These cycles can be repeated as often asdesired to ensure sufficient intermixture of copper and metal nitride toavoid electromigration. A highly conductive layer can be deposited overthe interface material by any suitable manner.

More preferably, some cycles are introduced that omit the WN formation,such that only phases (4) and (5) are included. In FIG. 12, this isrepresented by a truncated cycle 460, which omits the WN phases andinstead consists of phases (4)-(5), producing no more than a monolayerof elemental Cu. The process then continues on with another five-phasecycle 470, mixing WN with Cu.

The frequency of WN phases (1)-(3) can be gradually reduced duringprogressive cycles, thereby increasing the Cu percentage of the growinglayer. Eventually, only Cu deposition results. It will be understoodthat the relative proportion of WN to Cu in the transition region, andits profile, can be finely controlled by controlling the relativefrequency of WN phases (1)-(3) as compared to Cu phases (4)-(5).Accordingly, any desirable content profile can be achieved by themethods disclosed herein.

Advantageously, this transition region can have composition variationthrough a very small thickness of the material. Preferably, thetransition region of the illustrated embodiment, between a metal nitridebarrier region and a metal seed region, is between about 7 Å and 200 Å,more preferably between about 10 Å and 80 Å, and particularly less thanabout 50 Å. An exemplary thickness for a metal/metal nitride transitionregion is about 10 Å. Advantageously, this thin layer is provided withexcellent step coverage.

Seed Deposition Stage

Following formation of the transition region, in a continuous process, aseed layer can be deposited in situ over the transition region. In theillustrated embodiment, where a copper fill is desired within dualdamascene trenches and contact vias, a seed layer is desired prior toelectroplating. Accordingly, the fourth and fifth phases of theillustrated ALD process are repeated after the interface has formed.Thus, copper can be deposited by ALD over the interface of the mixed orcompound layer (i.e., over the transition region) to provide a uniformlythick electroplating seed layer.

Desirably, the two-phase cycles are then continued without first metaland nitrogen phases until a copper layer is formed that is sufficientlythick to serve as an electroplating seed layer. This seed layer ispreferably greater than about 50 Å, more preferably greater than about100 Å, and in the exemplary embodiment is about 150 Å.

The wafer can then be removed from the chamber and the trenches andcontact vias filled with a highly conductive metal. Preferably, copperis electroplated over the copper seed layer.

Thus, the metal nitride barrier, the graded interface or transitionregion and the copper seed region can all be deposited in situ in acontinuous process, under the same temperature and pressure conditions.Advantageously, the mixed and more preferably graded interface ortransition region avoids problems of electromigration that can occur atsharp metal/metal nitride interfaces during electrical operation of theintegrated circuit.

The skilled artisan will appreciate that, in some arrangements, therelative level of reactants can be controlled by varying theconstituents of a single reaction phase, as disclosed with respect toFIG. 7. Due to the complications of thermodynamic competition betweensimultaneously exposed reactants in an ALD process, however, it is morepreferred to introduce constituent variation into the growing layer ofby varying the number and/or type of phases in each cycle of thecontinuous process, as shown in FIG. 12.

Grading Using Replacement Reactions

In the first of the above-described embodiments, an impurity isdescribed as being introduced in the gas phase as one of the primaryreactants (e.g., increasing proportions of nitrogen provided as the sametime as the oxidant in the process of FIG. 7). In the second embodiment,the impurity is introduced by separate pulses in selected cycles of theALD process. Impurity pulses can substitute for pulses in the initialprocess, or can be provided in addition to the primary reactants, andthese pulse introductions can be provided with increasing frequencythroughout the process (e.g., the copper source gas pulses can be addedto or substituted for tungsten and nitrogen source gas pulses in theprocess of FIG. 12).

Additionally, the inventors have found that the impurity can beintroduced by way of the thermodynamically favored replacement ofalready-adsorbed species in the growing film. For example, in theprocess of growing a TiO₂ layer by ALD, introduction of an aluminumchloride (AlCl₃) gas pulse can replace Ti—O bonds with Al—O bonds, whichare thermodynamically favored, and in the process liberate volatileTiCl₄ gas. Similarly, a pulse of AlCl₃ can convert surface SiO₂ toAl₂O₃, liberating SiCl₄ gas. In another example, ZrO₂ at the surface ofa growing layer can be exposed to AlCl₃ to form Al₂O₃. These examplesare particularly advantageous in forming an upper interface between bulkTiO₂, SiO₂ or ZrO₂ dielectric and the gate electrode to be formedthereover.

Because the replacement reaction is thermodynamically favored, anextended exposure can replace one or two molecular layers of the lessfavored oxide with Al₂O₃. If such full layer replacement is desired inthe grading process, such exposures can be infrequently introduced inthe ALD process early in the deposition, with the greater frequencytowards the end of the process to produce a largely or purely Al₂O₃upper surface. Conversely, such exposures can be frequently introducedearly in the ALD process, and with less frequency later in the processto produce a largely or purely Al₂O₃ lower surface graded into the bulkdielectric.

Alternatively, less than full substitution of Al₂O₃ for TiO₂, SiO₂ orZrO₂ can be accomplished in each AlCl₃ pulse by selecting a shortenedtime span for the AlCl₃ pulse. The exposure time for the substitutionreaction can be progressively increased with each cycle or every fewcycles during the process, thus accomplishing a greater proportion ofAl₂O₃ at the upper surface of the growing dielectric layer. Wheregrading is accomplished by varying exposure time, it is advantageous tosupply reactant gases perpendicularly to the substrate, such as by wayof an overhead showerhead inlet. Thus concentration gradients from theinlet side to the exhaust side of the substrate can be avoided.

It has been shown that, even with a positive Gibb's free energy valuefor a substitution reaction, a long enough exposure to the substitutingsource gas can result in eventual replacement of the top molecular layerof the growing dielectric. See Jarkko Ihanus, Mikko Ritala, MarkkuLeskelä and Eero Rauhala, ALE growth of ZnS_(1-x)Se_(x) thin films bysubstituting surface sulfur with elemental selenium, “APPLIED SURFACESCIENCE, Vol. 112, pp. 154-158 (1997). In that case, it was shown thatexposure of a sulfide or —SH surface termination to pure selenium willresult in replacement of the sulfur atoms with selenium.

It will be understood that similar substitution reactions can also beemployed for grading conductive materials, such as metal nitrides withdifferent metals per the graded barrier layer described above.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in terms of certainpreferred embodiments, other embodiments will become apparent to thoseof ordinary skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein. Inparticular, the number of phases for each cycle can be varied.Intermediate reduction phases, for example, may not be necessary in somearrangements. Additionally, while one embodiment is disclosed in thecontext of conductive thin films lining a dual damascene structure, andanother embodiment is disclosed in the context of ultrathin gatedielectric films, the skilled artisan will readily find application forthe principles disclosed herein in a number of different contexts.

Accordingly, the present invention is not intended to be limited by therecitation of preferred embodiments, but is intended to be definedsolely by reference to the dependent claims.

1. A method of forming a liner layer with a varying composition in adamascene trench, comprising: placing a substrate in a reaction chamber;introducing first metal and nitrogen vapor phase reactants in alternateand temporally separated pulses to the substrate in a plurality ofatomic layer deposition (ALD) cycles; and introducing varying amounts ofa second metal vapor phase reactant to the substrate during saidplurality of deposition cycles.
 2. The method of claim 1, whereinintroducing varying amounts of the second metal vapor phase reactantcomprises linearly grading the copper concentration from a lower surfaceof the liner layer to an upper surface of the liner layer.
 3. The methodof claim 2, wherein introducing varying amounts of the second metalphase reactant comprises providing 0% copper at the lower surface andabout 50% copper at the upper surface.
 4. The method of claim 1, whereinthe nitrogen vapor phase reactant comprises ammonia.
 5. The method ofclaim 4, wherein the second metal vapor phase reactant comprises copper.6. The method of claim 5, wherein the first metal vapor phase reactantcomprises an element selected from the group consisting of tungsten,tantalum, and titanium.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein introducingvarying amounts of the second metal phase reactant comprises forming apure metal nitride at a lower surface of the liner layer and a purecopper layer at an upper surface of the liner layer.
 8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the copper layer comprises a seed layer.
 9. The methodof claim 7, further comprising copper electroplating to fill thedamascene trench.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the damascenetrench is a dual damascene trench.
 11. The method of claim 10, whereinthe dual damascene trench comprises a copper interconnect.
 12. Themethod of claim 1, wherein introducing varying amounts of the secondmetal vapor phase reactant comprises providing second metal vapor phasereactant pulses to the deposition cycles with varying frequency as thedeposition proceeds, the second metal vapor phase reactant pulses havingthe second metal vapor phase reactant as the sole reactant for suchpulses.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein introducing varying amountsof the second metal vapor phase reactant comprises providing pulses ofthe second metal vapor phase reactant to the deposition cycles withlesser frequency as the deposition proceeds.
 14. The method of claim 12,wherein introducing varying amounts of the second metal vapor phasereactant comprises providing pulses of the second metal vapor phasereactant to the deposition cycles with greater frequency as thedeposition proceeds.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein introducingvarying amounts of the second metal vapor phase reactant comprisesproviding varying levels of the second metal vapor phase reactant ineach of the deposition cycles as the deposition proceeds.
 16. The methodof claim 15, wherein the varying levels of the second metal vapor phasereactant are provided by varying exposure of adsorbed species to athermodynamically favored substitution reaction.
 17. The method of claim15, wherein the varying levels of the second metal vapor phase reactantare provided in separate pulses of varying duration.
 18. The method ofclaim 15, wherein the varying levels of the second vapor phase reactantreplace atoms at the surface of the thin film from a previous pulse. 19.A method of forming a metal nitride and copper containing thin film in adual damascene trench, comprising: placing a substrate in a reactionchamber; and introducing varying amounts of a metal precursor, anitrogen precursor, and a copper precursor in alternate and temporallyseparated pulses to the substrate in a plurality of atomic layerdeposition (ALD) cycles, wherein a lower surface of the thin film and anupper surface of the thin film have different copper concentrations. 20.The method of claim 19, wherein the metal precursor comprises a metalselected from the group consisting of tungsten, tantalum, and titanium.21. The method of claim 20, wherein the nitrogen precursor comprisesammonia.
 22. The method of claim 19, wherein introducing varying amountsof the metal, nitrogen, and copper precursors comprises adding thecopper precursor as the deposition proceeds.
 23. The method of claim 22,wherein introducing comprises providing copper precursor pulses to thedeposition cycles with varying frequency as the deposition proceeds. 24.The method of claim 22, wherein introducing comprises providing varyingquantities of the copper precursor in each of the deposition cycles asthe deposition proceeds.
 25. The method of claim 22, wherein introducingcomprises transitioning from adding constant levels of the metal andnitrogen precursors in each of the deposition cycles as the depositionbegins to adding less metal and nitrogen vapor phase reactants insequential deposition cycles as the deposition proceeds.
 26. The methodof claim 25, wherein adding less comprises providing the metal andnitrogen precursors with progressively lesser frequency as thedeposition proceeds.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein adding lesscomprises providing no metal and nitrogen precursors.
 28. The method ofclaim 27, wherein the copper concentration is lowest at the lowersurface and highest at the upper surface.
 29. The method of claim 28,wherein the thin film comprises a pure metal nitride layer at the lowersurface.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the metal nitride layercomprises a barrier layer.
 31. The method of claim 30, wherein thebarrier layer is between about 20 Å and 200 Å thick.
 32. The method ofclaim 19, further comprising filling the dual damascene trench withcopper by electroplating.
 33. The method of claim 32, further comprisinga polishing step to remove excess metal outside of the dual damascenetrench.